School  of  Mines 

BULLETIN  NO.  1 


Water  Resources 

OF  THE 

Devils  Lake  Region 

NORTH  DAKOTA 


By 

E.  J.  BABCOCK 


Dean  of  the  School  of  Mines. 


SCHOOL  OF  MINES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  NORTH  DAKOTA 

GRAND  FORKS,  N.  D. 


A Map  Showing-  Approximately  the  Area  in  Which  Lignite  Occurs  in  Quantities  Sufficient  To  Be  of  Economic 
Importance.  The  Lignite  Area  Is  Marked  by  Diagonal  Lines. 


I 


\o  W 

208  THE  LIGNITE  COAL  FIELDS  OF  NORTH  DAKOTA 


WATER  RESOURSES  OF  THE  DEVILS 
LAKE  REGION 

E.  J.  BABCOCK 


INTRODUCTION 

The  results  of  work  embodied  in  this  paper  deal  with  the-  j 
surface  and  shallow  water  supplies  of  that  large  and  interesting,  j 
portion  of  North  Dakota  known  as  the  Devils  lake  drainage 
basin.  While  these  investigations  are  somewhat  preliminary  in 
nature,  it  is  hoped  that  the  information  given  will  be  of  direct1 
economic  value  as  well  as  of  geologic  interest.  Special  attention 
is  given  to  the  possible  application  of  large  quantities  of  water 
obtainable  from  the  shallow  well  reservoirs  of  this  region,  and 
also  to  the  improvement  of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  water  used 
for  domestic  purposes.  The  origin,  distribution  and  character 
of  soils,  and  the  best  method  of  tillage,  the  securing  and  using 
of  water  irrigation  and  many  other  similar  questions  all  involved 
the  consideration  of  geological  facts.  All  underground  water  sup- 
plies depend  largely  for  their  sources,  quality,  character  and 
permanency  upon  the  surrounding ' topography  and  geological 
features.  The  essential  conditions  for  a wholesome  water  supply 
for  domestic  use,  upon  which  depends  the  health  of  the  commun- 
ity, are  very  largely  determined  by  geological  agencies  and  struc- 
tures. To  ascertain  the  quantity  and  purity  of  a water  supply  it 
is  not  only  necessary  to  consider  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  extent 
of  the  gathering  area,  but  it  is  even  more  important  to  know  the 
nature  of  the  underlying  rocks,  for  this  is  sure  to  have  a great  in- 
fluence upon  the  yield  and  character  of  the  water.  Considerable 
space  in  this  report  has  therefore  been  given  to  the  general  topo- 
graphic and  geological  conditions. 

TOPOGRAPHY 

The  Devils  Lake  Basin. — The  area  at  present  occupied  by 
Devils  lake  and  the  smaller  adjoining  lakes  comprises  but  a 
small  fraction  of  what  may  be  called  the  Devils  lake  drainage 


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legend.  A Map  of  the  Devils  Lake  Drainage  Basin. 

Morainic  Ri dg es.(Appoxim ate  only.  Largely  according  To  Upham.) 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


209 


basin.  As  shown  by  the  map,  this 
district  extends  from  the  Turtle 
mountains  on  the  north  to  a series 
Of  prominent  morainic  hills  lying 
between  Devils  lake  and  Stump 
lake  on  Sheyenne  river  on  the  south, 
and  from  a few  miles  north  of 
Stump  lake  on  the  east  to  a point 
near  the  western  boundary  of  Pierce 
county. 

Looking  toward  the  south  from 
the  heights  of  the  Turtle  moun- 
tains, one  has  spread  out  400  feet  or 
more  below  him  a beautiful  view  of 
a gently  rolling  prairie  region,  ^ 
dotted  with  small  farm  houses  sur-  * 
rounded  occasionally  by  planted 
groves.  This  undulating  surface  3 
extends  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  j 
gradually  decreasing  in  elevation  3 
as  it  approaches  Devils  lake.  From  £ 
points  farther  east,  toward  the  S 
Pembina  mountains,  a similar  though  S- 
less  raoid  descent  toward  the  south  » 

- tn 

is  noticeable.  ~ 

About  thirty  miles  west  of  the  & 
Red  River  of  the  North,  near  the  * 

. international  boundary,  is  an  area  3 
rising  abruptly  from  the  general  level  .- 
of  the  valley  to  a height  from  400 
to  600  feet  above  the  Red  river.  This 
elevated  * land  stretches  many  miles 

- northward  into  Canada  and  westward 
forms  a gradually  descending  plain 

^toward  the  central  part  of  the 

- state.  The  northeastern  portion  of 
this  tract  is  known  as  the  Pembina 
mountains.  Toward  the  west  it  in- 
creases slightly  in  elevation  though 
occasionally  interrupted  by  low  lands, 
until  it  practically  unites  with  the 
Turtle  mountain  highland  west  of 
the  Pembina  mountains.  Topograph- 
ically as  well  as  geologically  these 


/ 


210  WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 

two  elevations  should  be  considered  together.  Along  the  northern 
part  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Pembina  mountains  the 
tract  presents  the  appearance  of  a prominent  wooded  bluff 
rising  250  to  350  feet  above  the  surrounding  level  and  extending 
in  a nearly  direct  line  toward  the  south.  This  ridge  gradually 
decreases  in  elevation  until  at  its  southern  extremity  it  is  scarcely 
more  than  fifty  feet  above  the  country  round,  and  then  it  is  lost 
in  the  rolling  prairie.  Along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  escarpment 
its  elevation  above  the  sea  ranges  from  about  1,100  feet  in  the 
eastern  part  to  1,500  or  1,600  in  the  northwestern.  Beyond  the 
ravines  of  the  streams  along  the  eastern  edge,  the  crest  of  the 
Pembina  mountains  forms  a treeless,  rolling  plateau  stretching 
away  toward  the  west.  Over  most  of  this  tract  between  the 
Pembina  and  Turtle  mountains,  a distance  of  about  100  miles, 
there  is  very  little  to  note,  except  that  it  is  a high  prairie.  There 
are  but  few  streams  and  lakes  or  other  marked  surface  features. 
On  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  good  crops  of  small  grains 
are  usually  raised.  The  central  portion  has  heretofore  been 
used  for  grazing,  but  is  now  rapidly  developing  into  a wheat 
growing  region.  This  section  is  well  supplied  with  a variety  of 
excellent  prairie  grasses.  Eastward  this  belt  ascends  gradually 
toward  the  Turtle  mountains  and  descends  slightly  toward 
the  south.  The  southern  slope  shows  a very  gentle  drainage 
system,  beginning  near  the  base  of  the  Turtle  mountains,  and 
becoming  more  prominent  as  it  extends  further  into  the  Devils 
lake  basin.  In  fact  this  basin  is  the  natural  drainage  reservoir 
for  the  waters  of  a large  portion  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
northern  high  land  just  described.  No  streams  worthy  of  mention 
rise  along  the  western  part  of  the  district,  except  those  like  the 
Pembina  river,  which  have  their  ^sources  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  Turtle  mountains  in  Canada.  The  southern  surface  is, 
nevertheless,  well  drained,  and  without  doubt  much  water  slowly 
percolates  through  the  drift  to  the  underlying  Cretaceous  clay. 
The  direction  of  the  surface  drainage  is  toward  the  basin  in  which 
Devils  lake  is  situated. 

The  Turtle  mountains  proper  form  a high,  rolling  plateau 
about  forty  miles  long  and  thirty  miles  wide,  its  long  axis  being 
east  and  west.  The  surface  rises  gradually  from  all  sides,  but 
within  one  or  two  miles  of  the  summit  the  slopes  suddenly  grow 
steeper  until  an  elevation  from  300  to  400  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding country  is  attained.  The  sides  of  the  hills  have  but 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


211 


little  timber,  but  among  the  hill  tops  there  are  many  small  trees. 
The  Turtle  mountains  present  a very  broken  outline  on  account 
of  the  large  number  of  subordinate  hills  and  ridges  of  which 
they  are  made  up.  The  highest  of  these  buttes  reaches  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  2,500  feet  above  the  sea,  or  about  600  feet  above 
the  surrounding  country.  The  top  of  the  mountains  has  a beauti- 
ful rolling  surface,  covered  with  trees  and  dotted  with  lakes  and 
ponds.  Many  fine  farms  are  located  here.  Near  the  central  part 
of  these  hills  is  the  attractive  little  lake  Metigoshe. 

Springs  and  spring  brooks  are  common  along  the  hillsides. 
North  of  Dunseith  and  also  north  of  Bottineau  are  several  very 
large  springs.  About  two  miles  north  of  Bottineau  a tract  of 
several  acres  along  the  hillside  seems  to  consist  of  one  vast  spring; 
and  located  as  this  spring  is,  300  feet  or  more  above  the  town,  it 
seems  wonderfully  well  situated  to  furnish  a water  supply  for  domes- 
tic purposes  and  power.  The  water  which  oozes  out  of  this  hill- 
side is  rather  highly  charged  with  lime,  but  otherwise  seems  to 
be  of  excellent  character. 

The  Turtle  mountains  consist  of  a mass  of  Cretaceous  clays 
which  have  escaped  erosion  and  are  covered  with  a thin  layer  of 
drift.  This  drift  has,  however,  been  somewhat  cut  out  on  the 
top  of  the  plateau,  and  there  is  thus  formed  a great  gathering 
reservoir.  No  doubt  a large  amount  of  the  water  flowing 
in  the  brooks  and  from  the  numerous  springs  has  seeped  through 
the  clays  and  sand  from  this  high  land  reservoir. 

Measurements  along  the  Great  Northern  railway  give  the 
following  elevations  in  passing  toward  the  northwest : 

Feet  Above 


Locality  Sea  Level 

Grand  Harbor  1,461 

Churchs  Ferry  1,460 

Cando 1,490 

Bisbee  1,605 

Perth  1,736 

Rolla  1,823 

St.  John  1,950 


This  high  land  forms  an  important  part  of  the  gathering 
ground  for  the  water  of  the  Devils  lake  basin,  which  is  drained, 
however,  only  by  very  small  streams,  flowing  for  the  most  pa^t 
in  coulees  which  often  become  quite  dry  in  summer.  These 
coulees  enter  the  lake  from  various  directions,  but  chiefly  from 
the  north.  They  vary  in  size  from  wide  depressions,  only  two 


212 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


or  three  feet  deep,  to  narrow  channels  fifty  to  100  feet  wide,  and 
with  banks  twenty-five  or  fifty  feet  high.  When  water  is  not 
flowing  through  them,  small  ponds  are  frequently  left;  and  when 
entirely  drained,  such  coulees,  especially  the  wider,  shallow  ones, 
usually  make  fine  hay  and  pasture  lands.  At  one  time  these 
coulees  were  doubtless  important  factors  in  supplying  water  to 
Devils  lake.  This  is  particularly  true  of  Mauvaise  coulee,  which 
has  its  source  very  near  the  international  boundary  and  flows 
through  Lake  Irvine  into  Devils  lake.  Although  its  shallow  chan- 
nel may  now  be  dry  in  its  northern  portion,  it  was  probably  the 
outlet  for  a short  period  during  the  melting  of  the  ice  sheet  for  the 
flooded  district  along  the  southeastern  base  of  Turtle  mountains,  and 
it  seems  to  have  carried  a large  amount  of  water. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  of  the  district  is  a series 
of  low,  rounded  hills,  which  stretch  from  the  northwest  toward 
the  southeast  and  give  the  whole  surface  a very  undulating 
appearance.  North  of  the  lake  these  hills,  all  of  which  are 
probably  of  morainic  origin,  are  not  so  wide  or  high  as  those  to 
the  south.  Along  the  southeastern  end  of  Stump  lake  these 
morainic  swells  have  a thickness  of  from  fifteen  to  sixty  feet,  as 
shown  by  wells  which  pass  through  the  drift  and  enter  the 
Cretaceous  shales.  Along  the  southern  shore  of  Stump  lake  is  a 
group  of  hills  rising  from  150  to  200  feet  above  the  lake  level, 
which  are  at  least  covered  with  morainic  deposits.  These  hills 
descend  gradually  toward  the  south  until  they  reach  the  Sheyenne 
valley,  which  is  cut  down  100  feet  or  more  below  the  surface. 
Along  this  whole  distance  boulders  are  rather  thickly  scattered, 
and  sand  and  gravel  ridges  are  not  uncommon.  This  series  of 
morainic  ridges  is  well  developed  all  along  the  tract  south  of 
Fort  Totten,  through  the  Indian  reservation,  and  southwest  to 
Minnewaukan.  South  of  Minnewaukan  the  ridges  widen  out 
into  a high,  rolling  country  which  extends  three  or  four  miles 
south  of  Oberon,  while  still  farther  to  the  southwest,  along  the 
Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  & Sault  Ste.  Marie  railway,  they  pass  into 
the  rich  and  gently  undulating  prairie  which  is  drained  by  the 
upper  branches  of  the  Sheyenne  and  James  rivers. 

Most  of  the  hills  along  the  southwestern  shore  of  Devils  lake 
and  between  the  lake  and  Oberon  rise  from  seventy  to  100  feet 
above  the  lake  level.  Sully’s  Hill  and  other  hills  about  Fort  Totten 
are  about  225  to  250  feet  above  the  lake. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


213 


That  this  great  morainic  deposit  rests 
immediately  upon  Pierre  shale  is  evident 
from  the  shale  exposures  found  in  the 
occasional  deep  cuts  and  artificial  excava- 
tions rpade  among  the  hills.  The  whole 
district,  however,  is  thickly  covered  with 
drift  material,  even  the  highest  points 
being  often  covered  with  rock  fragments 
from  the  size  of  gravel  to  boulders  several 
feet  in  diameter.  These  fragments  are 
generally  of  granite  or  gneiss,  but  are 
frequently  mixed  with  a large  proportion 
of  light  gray  limestone,  probably  from 
the  Silurian.  All  of  this  material  was 
doubtless  transported  from  Canada  by  the 
ice.  This  morainic  ridge  passes  near 
Minnewaukan  and  thence  to  the  north- 
west, crossing  the  Great  Northern  railway 
near  Knox  and  Pleasant  lake,  where  it 
unites  with  another  very  marked  morainic 
ridge,  from  one-half  mile  to  two  miles 
wide,  running  a few  miles  southwest  of 
Churchs  Ferry  in  a winding  course  east 
to  Grand  Harbor,  where  it  bends  quickly 
to  the  north  around  the  southern  end  of 
Dry  lake,  from  which  point  it  extends  for 
miles  to  the  east.. 

Lying  between  the  last  two  series  of 
ridges,  immediately  west  of  Devils  lake 
and  north  of  Minnewaukan  and  between 
that  point  and  the  Mauvaise  Coulee,  is  a 
low,  sandy  tract  which  stretches  toward 
the  northwest  as  far  as  Knox,  and  is 
drained  by  several  shallow  coulees.  Low 
sand  ridges  are  seen  extending  to  the 
north.  This  is  very  clearly  an  old  beach 
of  Devils  lake,  and  indicates  that  the 
water  stretched  out  many  miles  beyond  its 
present  limits. 

Going  west  of  Oberon,  one  passes  grad- 
ually from  the  morainic  belt  south  of 
Devils  lake  to  a somewhat  lower,  rolling 


214 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


prairie,  known  as  Antelope  valley,  which  is  bordered  on  the 
north  by  morainic  hills  and  on  the  south  by  a slight  elevation 
approaching  the  Sheyenne  river.  This  fertile  undulating  valley 
extends  northwestward  to  the  vicinity  of  Girard  lake,  to  the 
border  of  what  was  probably,  during  a portion  ot  the  glacial 
period,  a large  lake  extending  from  this  point  west  to  Minot  and 
around  Turtle  mountains,  thirty  or  forty  miles  into  Canada. 

This  has  been  called  Glacial  Lake  Souris. 
During  a part  of  its  history  this  lake  appears 
to  have  been  drained  by  numerous  outlets 
to  the  south,  the  most  important  of  which 
developed  into  the  Sheyenne  and  James 

rivers.  When  the  waters  were  high,  they 
g probably  filled  the  Sheyenne  valley  and 

g eroded  at  successive  stages  the  terraced 
m banks  so  noticeable  along  the  upper  courses 

| of  this  stream.  At  the  same  time  doubtless 

many  of  the  coulees  which  pass  through 
> Antelope  valley  and  into  the  Sheyenne  river 
g were  formed  and  were  then  swollen  streams, 
£ aiding  in  the  drainage  of  the  area  bordering 
w Glacial  Lake  Souris.  At  present  only  a few 
I small  lakes,  'like  Girard  and  Buffalo,  show 
° the  source  of  the  Sheyenne  and  James  rivers. 
^ The  high  banks,  the  shore  marks,  the  high 
washed  boulders  and  stumps  of  petrified 
s trees,  and  the  deposits,  afford  unmistakeable 

£ii) 

£ evidence  that  Girard  lake  was  at  one  time  a 
large,  deep  body  of  water,  occupying  an 
area  several  times  as  great  as  that  which 
it  now  covers.  This  old  lake  had  a very 
irregular  outline,  and  its  length  was  prob- 
ably greatest  from  northwest  to  southeast. 
In  fact,  it  is  not  impossible-  that  it  may 
have  extended  ten  or  twelve  miles  south  of  Rugby,  or  even  have 
connected  with  Lake  Souris.  The  lake  is  now  about  three  miles 
long  and  from  one  to  two  miles  wide. 

The  central  portion  of  the  state  south  of  Devils  lake  is 
drained  by  the  Sheyenne  and  James  rivers.  The  Sheyenne  rises 
about  thirty  miles  west  of  Devils  lake,  and  flows  in  a very 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


215 


winding  channel  for  about  ninety  miles  toward  the  east;  then  it 
takes  a course  nearly  due  south  for  about  100  miles,  until 
twenty  miles  or  so  from  the  southeastern  limit  of  the  state, 
it  turns  northeasterly  into  the  Red  river  valley,  and  debouches 
into  the  Red  river  a short  distance  above  Fargo.  For  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  the  stream  is  narrow,  its  channel  being  cut 
through  yellow  and  blue  clays.  Often  the  banks  are  strewn  high 
upon  the  sides  with  glacial  debris.  They  vary  greatly  in  height, 
from  a few  feet  near  the  mouth  to  eighty  or  ninety  feet  near  the 
upper  waters.  Along  parts  of  the  river  course  are  well  marked 
terraces,  which  may  have  been  formed  while  the  stream  was  an 
outlet  for  the  glacial  lake  region  to  the  north.  The  western  part 
of  the  country  drained  by  the  Sheyenne  river  is  a high  rolling 
prairie,  often  from  1,300  to  1,600  feet  above  the  sea.  The  soil 
is  very  rich,  and  when  there  is  a fair  amount  of  rainfall  produces 
an  abundant  crop. 

Some  of  the  small  streams  which  form  the  headwaters  of  the 
James  river  are  southwest  of  Devils  lake  and  within  a few  miles 
of  the  source  of  the  Sheyenne.  At  this  place  the  two  rivers  are 
separated  by  a jidge  several  miles  wide.  The  country  around 
the  western  tributaries  of  this  river  is  of  the  same  character  as 
that  about  the  Sheyenne.  The  James  river  flows  for  about  150 
miles  in  a southeasterly  direction  until  it  crosses  the  state  line 
into  South  Dakota.  The  general  character  of  the  stream  and 
the  surrounding  country  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Shey- 
enne river.  The  surface  to  the  south  is  rather  more  level  and 
much  lower  in  altitude.  The  channel  is  cut  through  clay  and  drift, 
but  the  soil  and  subsoil  have  a larger  proportion  of  sand  than  is 
found  farther  north. 

STRATIGRAPHY 

The  rather  uniformly  level  character  of  the  surface  and  the 
absence  of  uplifts  and  very  deep  valleys  render  difficult  a study 
of  the  underlying  strata  throughout  the  state.  Outcrops  of  the 
deeper  rocks  are  few,  and  most  of  the  available  information  con- 
cerning not  only  the  lower  formations  but  also  portions  of  the 
upper  beds  has  been  obtained  from  a study  of  deep  well  borings. 

The  formations  occurring  in  the  state,  though  only  the  later 
ones  appear  on  the  surface,  include  rocks  of  the  Archean,  Cam- 
brian, Silurian,  Cretaceous  (Dakota,  Benton,  Niobrara,  Pierre  and 
Laramie),  as  well  as  glacial  drift  and  alluvial  deposits.  No  effort 
has  been  made  to  differentiate  the  Algonkian  from  the  Archean. 
The  Cretaceous  rests  upon  the  older  rocks  and  extends  over  the 


216 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


western  part  of  the  state,  its  thickness  ranging  from  a few  feet 
to  1,500  or  more.  The  various  beds  of  this  age  are  by  far  the 
most  characteristic  and  important  in  the  state.  The  Laramie  is 
found  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  chiefly  beyond  the  Missouri 
river,  and  is  characterized  by  extensive  beds  of  lignite  and  valuable 
deposits  of  fire  clay  and  potter’s  clay. 

In  this  discussion  only  a brief  description  will  be  given  of  the 
geological  formations  which  are  of  particular  significance  to  the 
water  supply  in  this  region.  The  rocks  of  the  Archean  have 
been  reached  by  a great  number  of  deep  well  borings  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  state,  and  the  Red  river  valley  is  doubt- 
less underlain  by  an  extension  of  the  great  Archean  belt  found  in 
northern  Minnesota  and  southern  Canada.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
granite,  gneiss  and  schists  are  the  characteristic  rocks. 

Archean. — Near  Big  Stone  lake  are  outcrops  of  granite,  and 
northeast  of  this  point  it  has  been  found  in  wells,  beneath  from 
fifty  to  125  feet  of  till.  In  some  places,  at  least,  magnesian 
limestone  overlies  the  granite.  A well  in  Moorhead  reaches 
granite  at  a depth  of  about  365  feet,  under  a covering  of  sand, 
blue  shale  and  glacial  and  alluvial  debris.  At  Grand  Forks, 
eighty  miles  farther  north,  granite  or  gneiss  was  reached  at  385 
feet,  being  overlain  by  a thick  layer  of  Silurian  limestone  and 
beds  of  gravel,  sand  and  clay.  Immediately  above  the  granite 
or  gneiss  was  a deposit  of  granitic  sand  and  gravel.  The  final 
borings,  which  were  taken  some  fifteen  feet  in  the  solid  rock, 
showed  a predominating  pink  feldspar  and  a composition  char- 
acteristic of  light  gneiss  or  granite. 

At  Grafton,  about  forty-five  miles  farther  north,  Archean 
rock  was  reached  at  903  feet,  and  still  farther  north,  across  the 
boundary  it  was  found  near  the  mouth  of  the  Red  river  and  to 
the  northwest  of  Lake  Winnipeg.  How  deeply  it  is  covered  to 
the  west  of  the  Red  river  valley  cannot  be  told.  The  old 
Archean  floor,  on  which  lie  the  deposits  in  the  Red  river  valley 
westward,  was  evidently  rolling  and  possibly  eroded,  as  indicated 
by  the  deposition  of  the  superincumbent  sand  and  gravel  found 
in  some  well  borings.  The  records  of  the  Grafton  well  indicate 
that  the  Archean  is  overlain  by  Cambrian  sandstone.  However, 
the  records  on  which  identification  is  based  are  somewhat  doubt- 
ful. If  they  are  correct,  there  would  seem  to  be  a very  great 
undulation  in  the  old  Archean  floor.  Farther  north  in  Canada 


North  Dakota  Geological  Survey.  fHate  XXXVlI. 


Irrigating-  a Wheat  Field 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


217 


the  Silurian  seems  to  rest  on  the  Archean  with  no  intervening 
Cambrian.  This  would  indicate  a local  condition  in  which  the 
Cambrian  of  the  Grafton  well  (if  it  be  truly  Cambrian)  occupied 
a depression  in  the  Archean  floor. 

Silurian . — As  has  already  been  intimated,  a portion  of  the 
Red  river  valley  includes  a deposit  of  Silurian  rock  under  the 
thick  covering  of  gravel  and  glacial  debris.  It  is  probably 
absent  in  the  western  portion  of  the  valley,  but  it  doubtless 
extends,  more  or  less  continuously,  beyond  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  state,  for  its  outcrops  are  found  about  Lake  Winnipeg 
in  Canada.  • In  the  northern  part  of  the  state  fragments  of  char- 
acteristic, fossiliferous,  Lower  Silurian  limestone  are  very  com- 
mon in  the  drift.  It  is  hard  to  give  any  approximate  southwestern 
limit  of  Silurian  but  it  may  not  be  far  from  Grand  Forks,  for  a 
layer  of  limestone,  apparently  Silurian,  about  one  foot  thick  was 
found  in  a well  about  380  feet  below  the  surface.  This  deposit 
may  indicate  nearness  to  the  limit  of  deposition  in  the  old  Silurian 
basin.  This  basin  seems  to  have  rapidly  deepened,  however,  toward 
the  north,  for  in  the  well  at  Grafton  the  total  thickness  of  the 
Silurian  is  recorded  as  about  317  feet.  It  increases  in  thickness 
toward  the  north  and  probably  toward  the  west,  as  at  Rosenfield,  in 
Canada,  about  sixty  miles  north  of  Grafton,  the  Silurian  is  said 
to  have  reached  a thickness  of  892  feet. 

Toward  the  west  its  extent  is  uncertain,  and  where  outcrops 
occur,  across  the  boundary  line,  the  Silurian  rocks  lie  in  nearly 
a horizontal  position  upon  the  Archean.  The  occurrence  of  out- 
crops of  Silurian  limestone  to  the  north  might  be  predicted  from 
the  large  proportion  of  this  material  found  in  the  gravel,  sand 
and  clay  of  the  drift  of  the  Red  river  valley  and  the  gravel 
deposits  farther  west.  Large  boulders  of  the  limestone  are  not 
common,  but  the  gravel  and  clay  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
state  frequently  contain  as  much  limestone  as  granite  and  gneiss, 
a fact  which  has  no  small  effect  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  this 
region. 

Cretaceous. — Between  the  Silurian  and  Cretaceous  is  an  uncon- 
formity and  apparently  a large  gap  in  the  geologic  series.  If 
other  formations  are  present  between  the  Silurian  and  Cretaceous 
westward,  they  are  very  deeply  covered  with  the  later  deposited 
material. 


218 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


The  Cretaceous  formations  found  so  -extensively  in  North 
Dakota  are  part  of  a great  belt  occupying  a large  part  of  the  Great 
Plains  and  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  northwest* 
ward  toward  the  Arctic  regions.  The  great  extent  and  thickness 
of  these  deposits  in  North  Dakota,  their  influence  upon  the  soil,  and 
their  connection  with  the  artesian  and  shallow  well  water  supply 
render  them  worthy  of  a somewhat  detailed  description. 

The  formations  of  the  Cretaceous  which  are  so  well  repre- 
sented in  the  Great  Plains  region  have  been  classified  as  follows : 


Cretaceous 


f Laramie 
! Montana 

J 

1 

j Colorado 
L Dakota 


j Fox  Hills 
} Pierre 
j Niobrara 
( Benton 


All  of  these  subdivisions  are  found  within  the  limits  of  North 
Dakota,  though  but  a portion  of  them  outcrop  on  the  surface. 
The  Cretaceous  series  is  probably  best  developed  in  the  central 
portion  of  the  state,  from  east  to  west.  In  the  eastern  part  the 
upper  group  is  not  found,  while  the  middle  and  lower  groups  are 
not  difficult  to  reach  in  well  borings.  In  the  western  and  north- 
western parts  of  the  state  the  upper  groups  commonly  appear,  and 
are  doubtless  underlain  by  the  earlier  formations. 

The  Dakota. — This  stage  consists  so  largely  of  a sand 
deposit  which  has  become  more  or  less  hardened  that  it  is  known 
as  the  Dakota  sandstone,  and  it  thus  differs  markedly  from  the 
overlying  formations,  which  are  chiefly  clays.  No  surface 
exposures  of  the  formation  are  found  in  North  Dakota,  but  its 
relative  position  and,  in  a limited  way,  its  extent  have  been 
observed  from  the  boring  of  artesian  wells  in  various  parts  of  the 
state.  From  the  records  at  hand  it  appears  to  underlie  the  upper 
Cretaceous  and  drift  over  practically  all  the  state,  from  the  Red 
river  valley  on  the  east  to  the  western  limit,  and  from,  the 
Canadian  line  into  South  Dakota.  Information  regarding  the 
thickness  of  the  group  is  meagre.  From  well  records  the  Dakota 
appears  to  be  very  thin  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state,  but  it 
increases  rapidly  in  thickness  toward  the  central  and  western 
parts.  It  ascends  gradually  toward  the  western  highlands,  and 
in  many  places  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and  along  the 
mountains  it  outcrops  at  the  surface.  These  surface  exposures 
of  the  Dakota  sandstone,  which  along  the  Rocky  mountains 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION  219 

aggregate  many  thousands  of  miles  in  area,  are  generally  con- 
sidered the  gathering  grounds  for  the  artesian  waters  of  the 
Great  Plains. 

Benton  and  Niobrara. — These  formations  immediately  overlie 
the  Dakota  sandstone  over  a large  part  of  that  great  section  of 
the  plains  in  which  the  latter  is  found. 

i,  In  North  Dakota  they  are  well  developed  in  the  central  and 
northern  part  of  the  state,  but  seldom  appear  along  the  eastern 
border.  They  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  Dakota,  as  they 
are  composed  principally  of  blue  clays  and  shales,  and  are  gener- 
ally of  very  fine  material.  Sand  is  occasionally  present  in  these 
deposits,  but  not  in  any  large  amount.  The  clays  and  shales  of 
the  Niobrara  and  upper  portion  of  the  Benton  are  often  rather 
strongly  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime,  and  in  a few  places 
in  South  Dakota  they  become  quite  pure  chalk. 

In  the  central  portion  of  the  state  the  total  thickness  of  the 
Benton  and  Niobrara  reaches  probably  from  500  to  800  feet,  and 
the  variation  in  thickness,  within  considerable  areas,  seems  not 
to  be  very  great.  Over  most  of  the  state  the  Benton  is  covered 
with  Pierre  and  with  drift,  although  in  a few  localities  outcrops 
of  the  Pierre  are  found.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
in  deep  cuts  along  the  Pembina  river,  the  top  of  the  Niobrara  is 
occasionally  seen  beneath  the  banks  of  Pierre  shales,  350  feet  or 
more  below  the  general  level  of  the  surface.  Along  the  eastern 
borders  of  the  Dakota  sandstone  the  Benton  and  Niobrara  do  not 
appear,  the  Pierre  seeming  to  overlap  and  rest  directly  upon  the 
Dakota.  In  South  Dakota  , and  Nebraska  are  many  exposures  of 
both  Benton  and  Niobrara,  the  Pierre  being  relatively  thinner 
and  less  uniform  in  its  extent  in  those  states  than  in  many  places 
in  North  Dakota.  As  nearly  all  our  information  regarding  the 
group  in  this  state  has  been  derived  from  artesian  well  borings, 
tfrere  has  been  little  opportunity  to  study  the  fossil  character  of 
the  deposit ; but,  from  the  apparent  similarity  in  the  conditions  of 
the  deposition,  it  is  safely  assumed  that  the  fossils  do  not  vary 
greatly  from  those  found  in  South  Dakota  exposures. 

In  this  state  both  the  Benton  and  the  Niobrara  are  character- 
ized by  dark  blue  and  black  shales,  frequently  charged  with  lime 
and  often  carrying  iron  pyrites,  fragments  of  coal,  alum  and 
crystal  gypsum,  all  in  very  small  quantities. 

Pierre. — This  division  comprises  a great  deposit  of  clays 
and  argillaceous  shales,  bluish-gray  in  color,  very  fine  and  uni- 


220 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


form  in  texture  and  almost  free  from  sand,  lying  immediately 
above  the  Niobrara  and  usually  in  perfect  conformity  Its  lower 
portion  is  somewhat  darkened  by  the  presence  of  carbonaceous 
matter.  These  shales  do  not  carry  much  carbonate  of  lime,  in 
which  they  differ  markedly  from  the  Niobrara,  but  they  do  often 
contain  thin  seams  of  sulphate  of  lime,  nodules  of  iron  pyrites 
and  alum.  Probably  in  no  part  of  the  state  has  the  greatest 
thickness  of  the  Pierre  been  penetrated.  Along  the  deepest  cuts 
formed  by  the  Big  Pembina  river  the  bottom  of  the  Pierre  is 
reached  at  about  350  or  400  feet  below  the  surrounding  country; 
but  the  elevation  of  the  land  increases  considerably*  to  the  north- 
west, and  in  this  region,  as  well  as  in  others,  it  may  reach  a 
total  thickness  of  600  feet  or  more.  Toward  the  east,  however, 
the  Pierre  gradually  thins  out,  until  in  the  Red  river  valley  only 
its  debris  is  found. 

At  the  international  boundary  the  Pierre  is  seen  just  west 
of  the  Red  river  valley,  where  it  forms  nearly  all  the  material  of 
that  conspicuous  hilly  escarpment  known  as  the  Pembina  moun- 
tain (see  figure  14).  These  hills  form  a very  remarkable 
series  of  highlands,  which  increase  slightly  in  elevation  toward 
the  northwest  and  stretch  away  toward  the  south  in  a gradually 
descending  rolling  plain.  The  Pembina  mountain,  so-called,  is. 
really  only  the  sharply  eroded  eastern  edge  of  the  Cretaceous 
formations,  mostly  of  Pierre,  which  underlie  the  Turtle  mountains 
as  well  as  the  Pembina  mountains  and  all  the  intermediate 
country.  Among  the  hills  and  along  the  banks  of  spring  brooks 
and  lakes  of  the  Turtle  mountains  the  Pierre  is  constantly  out- 
cropping ; and  from  this  northern  highland  southward  through 
the  central  part  of  .the  state  it  is  always  found  underlying  the  vary- 
ing deposits  of  drift.  It  is  obtained  from  the  deep  well  borings, 
is  seen  along  .many  streams,  and  frequently  small  fragments  of 
its  hardened,  shaly,  blue,  clay  occur  on  the  surface  of  the  drift 
ridges.  This  is  continually  observed  in  the  whole  of  the  Devils 
lake  Basin.  To  the  east  many  of  the  smaller  streams  cut  into  the 
Pierre,  and  the  formation  is  clearly  seen  along  the  banks  of  the 
Sheyenne  and  James  rivers. 

Like  the  other  divisions  of  the  Cretaceous,  the  Pierre 
extends  over  a great  area  beyond  the  limits  of  North  Dakota, 
chiefly  southward  in  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Colorado  and  ad- 
joining states. 

The  Pierre  is  easily  recognizable  by  the  color  and  texture  of 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


221 


the  clays  and  shales,  but  fossils  are  not  entirely  lacking,  and  several 
forms  are  found  along  streams  in  many  places  in  the  central 
part  of  the  state.  The  more  common  fossils  are  B acuities  ovatus, 
Inoceramus,  Scaphites  (S.  nodosus  Owen,  S.  nicolletii  Morton). 
These  fossils  are  often  partly  disintegrated  and  very  commonly 
highly  discolored  by  iron.  Although  many  other  forms  may  occa- 
sionally be  found,  the  Pierre  in  North  Dakota  must  still  be  con- 
sidered rather  barren  of  fossils. 

There  are  no  formations  which  play  so  important  a part  in  the 
geology  of  North  Dakota  as  those  of  the  Pierre.  Vast  accumula- 
tions of  the  clay  and  shales  of  this  stage  are  found  throughout  a 
large  area  in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  and  its  debris  forms 
much  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  in  the  glacial  deposits  scattered  over 
all  the  eastern  half.  It  is  also  a factor  in  determining  the 
underground  water  supply  in  the  central  part  of  the  state.  ItV 
forms  very  generally  the  confining  bed  for  the  shallow  wells  in 
the  eastern  and  central  parts  of  the  state,  and  water  is  generally 
found  in  the  sand  and  shale  debris  deposited  upon  or  interstrati- 
fied  with  the  Pierre. 

Laramie. — The  Laramie  extends  over  a large  portion  of  the 
state  west  of  the  Missouri  river.  The  deposits  consist  princi- 
pally of  clays,  some  of  which  are  excellent  as  fire  and  white- 
ware  clays.  It  has  already  been  briefly  reviewed  in  an  earlier 
chapter. 

Drift. — The  drift  deposits  in  many  localities  of  North  Dakota 
form  important  factors,  not  only  in  the  surface  topography,  but 
as  well  in  the  geologic  and  economic  conditions.  The  water 
supplies  of  considerable  areas  are  materially  affected  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  drift.  This  is,  especially  true  in  the 
Devils  lake  drainage  basin,  and  some  of  the  conditions,  especially 
of  the  topography,  are  illustrated  in  the  plates  and  maps  show- 
ing the  drainage  and  morainic  deposits.  The  drift,  indeed,  may 
be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  characteristic  deposits  within  the 
state  of  North  Dakota,  particularly  that  portion  lying  east  of  the 
Missouri  river.  On  account  of  the  importance  of  this  formation 
in  the'  Devils  lake  basin,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  somewhat  in 
detail  the  conditions  under  which  the  drift  was  deposited  and  its 
effect  upon  the  present  Devils  lake  basin  and  its  water  supply. 
The  drift  in  this  region  is  made  up  largely  of  sand  and  clay,  mingled 
with  gravel  and  boulders,  and  presents  a heterogeneous  , mass  totally- 


222 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


unlike  the  sedimentary  formations  upon  which  it  lies.  Anyone 
who  will  thoughtfully  consider  the  appearance  of  the  surface  of 
nearly  all  the  eastern  part  of  North  Dakota  will  be  impressed  by 
the  fact  that  some  widely  operative  and  powerful  agency  has,  with- 
in a comparatively  recent  geological  period,  been  shaping  its 
features  and  accumulating,  mingling  and  distributing  the  immense 
amount  of  unconsolidated  material  which  covers  to  a considerable 
thickness  the  earlier  stratified  formations. 

The  embedding  material  is  usually  blue  and  yellow  clay  in 
thick  sheets,  sometimes  alternating  with  beds  of  sand  and  gravel, 
in  both  of  which  are  scattered  large  blocks  of  various  kinds  of 
rocks,  sometimes  weighing  several  thousand  pounds.  These 
boulders  are  frequently  smoothed  and  scored  with  fine  parallel 
scratches.  A knowledge  of  the  character  of  these  rock  masses 
and  a familiarity  with  some  of  the  rocks  outcropping  farther 
north,  in  Canada,  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  debris  was  trans- 
ported from  northern  regions.  Much  of  the  limestone  found  in 
the  drift  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  was  undoubtedly  taken 
from  the  beds  which  outcrop  about  Lake  Winnipeg.  A study  of 
well  excavations  and  of  channels  of  stream  erosion  shows  that 
this  drift  material  was  spread  over  an  old  land  surface.  In  some 
places  in  the  Red  river  valley  drift  and  alluvial  deposits  reach  a 
depth  of  300  to  350  feet.  In  the  northern  and  central  part  of  the 
state  the  thickness  is  commonly  from  thirty  to  100  feet. 

The  character  of  these  various  drift  deposits  indicates  that 
a very  large  area  in  North  Dakota  was,  at  a late  geological  period, 
covered  by  a great,  slowly  moving  ice  sheet,  similar  to  that 
which  now  covers  a large  part  of  Greenland,  which  stretched  far 
away  to  the  north  into  Canada.  This  vast  ice  sheet,  which  in 
its  northern  portion  at  least  must  have  been  very  deep,  tore  away 
exposed  rock  ledges,  and  enveloped  and  bore  along  with  it  the 
loose  material  with  which  it  came  ill  contact.  This  debris  was 
frozen  into  the  ice,  and  under  the  enormous  weight  above  it 
became  a mighty  grinding  power.  As  the  ice  sheet  moved 
onward  from  the  north,  slowly  but  irresistibly,  the  enclosed  rock 
masses  were  worn  away  to  smaller  fragments,  pebbles,  sand  and 
clay,  and  all  mixed  with  the  sand  and  clay  and  soils  of  the  sur- 
face over  which  the  ice  moved.  Thus  was  formed,  during  the 
centuries  of  the  glacial  period,  an  enormous  amount  of  this  rock 
refuse,  which,  with  the  return  of  a warmer  climate  and  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  sheet,  was  intermingled  and  spread  far  and  wide. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


223 


'This  drift  material,  by  reason  of  its  variety  of  composition  and 
depth  of  deposit,  was  well  calculated  to  become  the  formation  of 
the  rich  soil  so  characteristic  of  the  eastern  and  central  parts  of 
North  Dakota. 

With  a change  in  climatic  conditions  the  ice  began  to  melt 
along  its  southern  border,  and  the  water  formed  by  the  melting, 
being  banked  on  the  north  by  the  great  ice  barrier,  gradually 
accumulated  in  a glacial  lake  along  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  sheet.  As  the  glacier  continued  its  retreat  to  the  north,  the 
area  and  depth  of  the  lake  increased,  and  the  water,  spreading 
out  over  the  Red  river  valley  and  finding  no  other  outlet,  at  last 
overflowed  the  height  of  land  near  Lake  Traverse,  making  its  way 
through  that  lake  and  Big  Stone  lake  into  the  Minnesota  river 
and  thence  into  the  Mississippi  river.  When  the  ice  had  melted 
far  enough  toward  the  north,  a natural  outlet  was  opened  through 
Lake  Winnipeg  and  Hudson  bay,  and  the  present  valley  of  the 
Red  river  was  begun.  The  total  area  covered  by  this  great  lake, 
known  as  Lake  Agassiz,  has  been  estimated  by  Warren  Upham* 
at  110,000  square  miles,  over  which  the  water  often  reached  a 
depth  of  500  to  700  feet.  At  last  the  ice  sheet  had  retreated  so 
far  that  it  left  open  the  Nelson  river,  thus  affording  an  outlet 
through  this  river  and  Lake  Winnipeg  into  Hudson  bay.  From 
this  time  Lake  Agassiz  was  rapidly  drained.  In  the  lowland  of 
the  Winnipeg  basin,  however,  a large  body  of  water  was  left,  a 
portion  of  which  forms  the  present  Lake  Winnipeg. 

This  great  body  of  water  has  recorded  its  presence  in  three 
way : By  lacustrine  sediments,  by  extensive  alluvial  and  delta 
deposits,  and  by  corresponding  extensive  erosion.  The  fine  silt 
and  clay  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Red  river  valley  were 
deposited  by  the  waters  of  Lake  Agassiz  and  the  many  glacial 
rivers  which  brought  debris  into  this  basin  from  the  surrounding 
higher  lands.  The  water  of  the  glacial  Red  river  gradually  nar- 
rowed, but  in  the  central  portion  of  the  valley,  being  much  deeper, 
it  remained  a longer  time,  and  thus  gave  opportunity  for  a thicker 
deposit  of  sediment  than  is  found  along  the  old  lake  margin. 
Warren  Upham  has  traced  a series  of  beaches  marking  clearly  the 
extent  of  Lake  Agassiz  at  its  various  stages. 

The  streams  which  flow  through  the  lacustrine  sediments 
usually  have  narrow  and  shallow  banks,  but  the  valleys  of  those 

*The  Glacial  Lake  Agassiz,  by  Warren  Upham;  Mon.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No. 
XXV,  1895. 


224 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


streams  which  flow  into  the  basin  of  Lake  Agassiz  are  commonly 
deep  and  wide,  showing  much  erosion.  This  is  particularly 
noticeable  of  the  streams  flowing  from  the  Cretaceous  highlands 
on  the  west,  for  example,  Park  river,  Tongue  river,  Little  Pem- 
bina and  the  Pembina  rivers.  Along  the  eastern  escarpment  of 
the  Pembina  mountains  the  erosive  action  of  the  old  lake  is- 
clearly  seen  in  the  almost  cliff-like  ascent  of  the  Cretaceous  table- 
land. 

Lake  Agassiz  was  not  the  only  glacial  lake  by  which  the 
surface  of  the  level  prairies  of  North  Dakota  was  modified.  In 
the  central  part  of  the  state  there  were  probably  several  lakes 
at  various  periods  following  the  glacial  epoch  which  were 
formed  from  the  melting  of  arms  of  the  ice  sheet.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  was  glacial  Lake  Souris.  Devils  lake 
and  its  immediate  drainage  basin  is  doubtless  a remnant  of  one 
of  these  lakes.  The  Sheyenne  and  James  rivers  probably  were 
started  and  the  high  bluffs  along  the  western  portion  of  these 
streams  washed  out  during  the  time  when  districts  to  the  north, 
about  Devils  lake,  and  to  the  west,  being  flooded  by  the  melting 
ice,  were  drained  of  great  quantities  of  water  by  these  rivers. 
All  through  the  eastern  and  central  portion  of  the  state  the  ice 
sheet,  the  lakes  and  the  river  torrents  formed  by  melting  ice,  exerted' 
a powerful  influence  in  giving  fertility  to  the  soil  and  final  shape 
to  the  surface  of  our  North  Dakota  prairies. 

DEVILS  LAKE 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  region  under  discus- 
sion is  Devils  lake,  which  occupies  a basin  formed  largely  by 
morainic  ridges.  As  shown  on  the  map,  it  lies  along  Ramsey 
and  Benson  counties,  with  its  length  extending  east  and  west,  as 
illustrated  in  plate  XXXVIII.  The  length  of  the  lak£,  including 
the  arms  which  properly  belong  to  its  present  stage,  though  some 
of  them  are  nearly  dry  or  separated  by  portions  of  land,  is  about 
twenty-four  miles,  and  the  width  averages  perhaps  between  four 
and  seven  miles.  Its  shore  line  is  exceedingly  long,  owing  to  the 
numerous  bays  and  other  irregularities,  and  it  is  probable  that  it 
will  reach  several  hundred  miles. 

The  southern  shore  of  the  lake,  which  is  often  very  thickly 
strewn  with  large  boulders,  rises  rapidly  into  a high  rolling 
country,  whose  surface  is  broken  by  numerous  steep  knobs, 
some  of  them  200  to  275  feet  above  water  level.  The  western 


North  Dakota  Geological  Survey.  Plate  XXXVIII. 


View  of  Devils  Lake. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


225 


part  of  this  tract  is  included  in  the  Sioux  Indian  reservation. 
Northward  the  land  rises  in  gentle  swells,  gradually  increasing 
in  elevation,  until  it  reaches  the  rolling  drift  deposits  just  north 
of  the  city  of  Devils  Lake  and  Grand  Harbor.  Toward  the  north- 
west is  a similar  gradual  elevation  of  rolling  prairie  for  nearly 
forty  miles. 

That  there  was  unquestionably  a time  in  the  early  history  of 
this  lake  when  it  was  several  times  larger  than  it  is  at  present  is 
evident  in  several  ways.  At  many  places  along  the  south  shore 
there  are  found,  well  up  on  the  steep  hillsides  which  begin  near 
the  lake,  large  boulders  which  present  a peculiar  parallel  ar- 
rangement, apparently  the  result  of  the  expansive  action  of  shore 
ice  during  the  winters  and  springs.  The  boulders  were  pushed 
into  their  present  positions  when  the  water  was  high, 
and  this  crowding  up  of  large  rocks  continued  year  after  year. 
These  marks  of  the  old  water  *level  are  now  seen  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  above  the  present  water  level.  Such  an  elevation  of  the  water 
surface  would  of  course  extend  the  lake  over  a much  wider  area 
to  the  west  and  north. 

This  condition  is  also  indicated  by  what  are  undoubtedly  old 
shallow  shore  lines  from  six  to  ten  miles  north  and  west  of  the 
lake.  In  appearance  some  of  these  shores  are  not  unlike  beaches 
of  old  Lake  Agassiz,  east  of  Larimore.  The  character  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  clay,  sand  and  gravel  are  indicative  of  shallow 
water.  Wells  dug  along  these  shores  pass  through  varying  thick- 
nesses of  such  -lacustrine  deposits,  depending  on  the  surface  elevation 
and  distance  from  the  lake.  From  a study  of  the  formations 
penetrated  in  about  forty  or  fifty  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake, 
deposits  apparently  lacustrine  are  found  immediately  above  mo- 
rainic debris  on  the  higher  portions,  or  in  the  lower  places,  mixed 
with  drift  and  fragments  of  Pierre  shale. 

Another  evidence  of  the  former  wide  extent  of  this  lake  is 
afforded  by  the  character  of  the  water  in  the  wells  near  it. 
When  the  lake  was  at  its  highest,  its  water,  largely  derived  from 
the  melting  snow  and  ice,  was  fresh,  it  was  fed  by  numerous 
large  streams  and  probably  for  a short  time  had  southeastern 
outlets.  As  the  lake  decreased  in  size,  its  waters  became  more 
strongly  impregnated  with  salts  left  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
incoming  surface  water.  The  soil  and  clay  which  had  been 
under  shallow  water  for  a short  time  stored  up  a small  amount 
of  salts,  while  those  nearer  the  center  of  the  basin  and  deeply 


226 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


covered  with  water  for  a much  longer  time  stored  up  corre- 
spondingly larger  amounts  of  the  salts.  These  salts  are  now 
being  redissolved  in  the  well  water.  A large  number  of  samples 
of  water  from  wells  at  different  distances  ranging  from  one-half 
mile  to  six  miles  from  the  lake,  but  clearly  within  the  imme- 
diate lake  basin,  were  examined  by  the  writer,  by  chemical  field 
tests  or  by  rapid  laboratory  determinations,  with  a special  view 
to  ascertaining  the  relative  amounts  of  alkalies,  chlorides  and 
other  salts.  It  was  thought  that  such  an  examination  might 
not  only  give  some  hints  of  value  in  determining  the  best  location 
for  wells,  but  that  it  might  throw  some  light  on  the  former  ex- 
tent of  the  lake  bed.  These  chemical  tests  show  that  in  general 
the  percentage  of  chlorides  and  hydrogen  sulphide  increases  as 
the  lake  is  approached.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  water  which  is 
strong  in  chlorides  (mostly  common  salt)  is  obtained  from  wells 
located  on  low  land  or  near  the  lake,  while  that  containing  a small 
amount  of  chlorides  is  generally  from  wells  located  on  high  land. 
To  exhibit  this  fact  more  clearly  the  following  table  has  been  pre- 
pared, showing  the  relative  amounts  of  salt  and  alkalies  in  the 
water,  together  with  the  elevation  of  a number  of  wells  about 
the  lake.  Corresponding  numbers  will  be  found  on  the  map,  and 
from  these  the  wells  can  be  readily  located : 


TABLE  SHOWING  RELATIVE  SALINITY  OF  WELLS  NEAR  DEVILS  LAKE 


No. 

Depth 
of  Well 
Feet 

Elevation 

Relative  Amount  of  ! 

Salts 

Chloride  * 

Alkalies 

Soluble 

Sulphidesf 

1 

22 

High 

Little. 

2 

119 

Very  high 

Trace. 

3 

52 

Medium 

Strong 

Little 

Trace 

4 

29 

High 

Trace 

Much 

5 

40 

x -1-  Afc> 11 

Low 

Much 

6 

40 

High 

Little 

Trace 

Much 

7 

36 

Low.  . 

Strong  . . 

Much 

8 

107 

High 

Little 

Trace 

Little 

9 

33 

Low 

Strong 

Trace. 

10 

30 

High 

Little 

Little 

Much 

11 

22 

High 

Trace 

Trace 

Much 

12 

72 

Very  high 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

13 

38 

Medium 

Strong ' 

Trace 

Trace 

14 

40 

Low 

Strong 

Trace 

Little 

15 

29 

Low 

Strong 

Strong. 

16 

46 

High 

Trace 

Trace. 

17 

25 

Medium 

Strong 

Trace 

Little 

18 

38 

High 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

19 

32 

Low 

Strong 

Trace 

Much 

20 

32 

Medium 

Strong 

Trace 

Much 

21 

24 

Medium 

Little 

Little. 

♦Principally  common  salt.  Though  these  are  not  expressed  in  exact  quantities,  the 
amounts  are  relatively  correct. 

flncluding  hydrogen  sulphide. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


227 


A careful  study  of  the  shore  line  and  the  gravel  and  other 
deposits  about  Lake  Irvine  and  to  the  southeast  shows  very 
plainly  that  the  small  lakes  north  of  Devils  lake  were  also  very 
much  larger  at  some  time  in  their  history.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  Lake  Irvine,  at  no  very  remote  period,  extended  from  one 
mile  to  three  miles  farther  east,  and  stretching  toward  the 
south,  widened  out  irregularly  three  or  four  miles  more  toward* 
the  southeast.  At  this  time  Lac  aux  Morts,  Twin  lakes,  and 
Dry  lake  were  probably  connected  and  formed  one  sheet  of 
water,  which  may  have  been  continuous  with  Cavanaugh  and 
Sweetwater  lakes,  thus  forming  a large  body  of  water  which 
stretched  out  with  irregular  shore  line  toward  the  southeast, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  present  Devils  lake,  presenting  an  appear- 
ance similar  to  the  Devils  lake  of  today.  This  old  lake  and 
Devils  lake  were  doubtless  connected  by  a long,  narrow  bay,  fill- 
ing all  the  low  land  of  the  coulee  bed  between  Lake  Irvine  and 
Devils  lake. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  there  has  been  a gradual  reduction  in 
the  volume  of  water  in  Devils  lake  and  surrounding  lakes  for  a 
very  long  time,  perhaps  for  an  epoch  following  soon  after  the 
glacial  period.  From  the  observations  and  reports  of  those  who 
lived  about  the  lake  for  years,  and  especially  from  the  records  of 
Capt.  E.  E.  Herman,  it  appears  that  the  water  has  been  decreas- 
ing in  depth  and  area  for  the  past  ten  years.  Since  1883,  at 
various  times,  according  to  the  best  estimates  obtainable,  the 
lake  has  been  from  four  to  nine  feet  lower  than  at  that  time. 
Arms  of  the  lake  on  which,  steamers  were  accustomed  to  ply  ten 
years  ago  have  now  become  dry,  or  so  low  that  boating  on  them 
is  impossible.  A few  years  ago  steamers  could  run  into  the  city 
of  Devils  Lake  or  Minnewaukan,  but  at  present  they  do  not  at- 
tempt to  come  within  several  miles  of  either  place. 

In  the  fall  of  1896  the  surface  of  the  water  was  found  by 
leveling  to  be  39.8  feet  below  the  top  rails  at  a point  on  the 
Great  Northern  railway,  the  altitude  of  which  is  given  at  1,489 
feet  above  the  sea,  which  would  leave  the  water  in  the  lake  at 
that  time  1,429.2  feet  above  the  sea.  At  the  same  time  sound- 
ings were  taken  of  the  central  part  of  the  main  lake,  and  from 
nine  soundings  taken  between  the  Chautauqua  grounds  and  Fort 
Totten,  at  various  points  not  within  a mile  or  more  of  the  shore, 
an  average  depth  of  25.5  feet  was  obtained.  The  greatest  depth 
of  water  found  was  near  the  center  of  this  part  of  the  lake,  and 
amounted  to  29.3  feet. 


228 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


Considering  the  historic  and  prehistoric  records  of  the  lake, 
the  question  which  naturally  arises  is,  will  the  lake  continue  to 
decrease  in  size  until,  like  most  old  glacial  lakes,  it  becomes 
quite  dry  or  at  least  until  it  is  very  much  further  reduced?  To 
this,  of  course,  no  positive  answer  can  be  given.  In  order  to 
form  an  intelligent  opinion  on  the  subject  one  must  take  into  con- 
sideration the  character  of  the  formation  of  the  retaining  basin, 
the  area  of  drainage,  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  proportion 
of  water  which  finds  its  way  into  the  lake.  There  being  no  out- 
let, practically  the  only  means  for  decrease  is  by  evaporation,  and 
from  a study  of  the  geologic  conditions  it  is  evident  that  there  is 
no  chance  for  subterranean  drainage,  to  any  considerable  extent, 
other  than  into  this  basin.  Indeed,  the  arrangement  of  the  blue 
shale  (Pierre)  underlying  the  drift  provides  a very  perfect  gather- 
ing bottom  for  surface  water,  and  the  fact  that  over  large  areas 
this  shale  has  but  slight  dip  still  further  aids  in  retaining  the 
percolating  water.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  during  the  last 
fifteen  years  the  breaking  up  of  so  much  of  the  thick  prairie* sod 
has  had  a marked  influence  in  reducing  the  volume  of  water  flowing 
in  Devils  lake.  The  plowing  destroys  the  natural  thatch  of  grass 
which  covers  the  porous  soil  and  on  which  so  much  of  the  water 
runs.  It  exposes  the  dry  soil  which  so  readily  imbibes  a large  pro- 
portion of  the  moisture  precipitated ; and  it  forms  by  the  roughened 
surface,  a very  great  obstruction  to  the  flowing  water.  The  con- 
ditions for  the  last  few  years  have  all  been  very  favorable  to  the 
reduction  of  the  run-oflf  water,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
the  lake  will  be  able  to  regain  permanently  any  considerable  portion 
of  its  lost  area.  A further  reduction  of  its  volume  may  even  be 
expected  as  still  more  prairie  land  is  put  under  cultivation,  but 
this  must  necessarily  be  at  a much  slower  rate  than  heretofore,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  not  cause  the  water  to  fall 
much  below  its  present  limits  in  the  central,  deeper  portion  of  the 
lake. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


229 


WATER  SUPPLY 

The  area  naturally  tributary  to 
Devils  lake  is  probably  not  far  from 
4,000  square  miles.  With  such  a 
gathering  surface  it  would  seem  that 
there  should  be  no  lack  of  water  if 
but  a small  fraction  of  the  annual 
rainfall  reached  the  lake;'  but  the 
general  inclination  toward  the  lake 
is  so  gentle  that  the  streams  flow  very 
sluggishly,  and  thus  there  is  op- 
portunity for  a very  large  propor- 
tion of  the  water  of  the  catchment 
basin  to  evaporate  or  soak  into  the 
soil  before  it  reaches  the  lake. 

The  geological  formations  of  the 
district  have  already  been  described, 
but  may  be  summarized  here  as  fol- 
lows : Starting  with  the  Dakota 
sandstone,  whose  total  thickness  here 
is  not  known,  the  deposit  next  above 
is  the  Benton,  composed  of  dark 
clays  and  shales ; above  this  is  the 
Niobrara,  usually  highly  calcareous, 
but  represented  in  this  locality  by 
slightly  calcareous  layers  of  dark  blue 
slate  and  clays ; next  is  the  Pierre, 
represented  by  similar  clays  and 
shales ; and  upon  the  Pierre  the 
drift  is  spread  for  a thickness  vary- 
ing from  twenty  to  fifty  feet.  A 
section  from  the  artesian  well  in  the 
city  of  Devils  Lake,  the  elevation  of 
which  is  from  1,460  to  1,470  • feet 
above  the  sea  level,  gives  the  rela- 
tive thickness  of  the  different  forma- 
tions approximately  as  indicated  by 
the  accompanying  figure. 

The  underground  water  supply  of 
this  region  is  derived  from  two  for- 
mations. The  water  from  the  deep 


230 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


artesian  well  comes  from  the  Dakota  sandstone ; that  of  the 
shallow  wells  is  found  chiefly  in  the  till  at  the  top  of  the  Pierre 
or  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  Pierre  itself.  A large  number  of 
artesian  wells  have  been  bored  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts 
of  North  Dakota,  but  only  an  occasional  well  has  been  attempted 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  In  the  Red  river  valley  the 
artesian  wells  usually  give  a small  flow  from  beds  lying  100  to 
300  feet  below  the  surface,  but  the  water  from  most  of  these  wells 
has  little  or  no  pressure.  The  wells  of  the  south  central  part  of 
the  state,  however,  all  give  a large  flow  at  from  400  to  1,200  feet, 
with  good  pressure  at  the  surface.  The  artesian  water  at  the 
town  of  Devils  Lake  flows  with  some 
force,  furnishing  about  forty  gallons 
per  minute.  The  water  commonly  car- 
ries a small  amount  of  fine  Dakota  sand 
and  is  rather  strongly  impregnated 
with  salts.  The  following  is  an  analysis 
of  this  water,  made  by  James  A. 

Dodge,  formerly  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  University  of  Minnesota.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  substances  reported  there 
are  found  traces  of  borates,  bromides  and 
organic  matter. 


ass mmm 


ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  ARTESIAN 
WELL  AT  DEVILS  LAKE 

Grains 
Per  Gallon 

Sulphate  of  sodium 94.62 

Chloride  of  sodium 86.46 

Carbonate  of  sodium 41.11 

Carbonate  of  potassium 4.62 

Carbonate  of  lithium 0.67 

Carbonate  of  calcium 1.56 

Carbonate  of  magnesium 1.01 

Carbonate  of  iron 0.03 

Silicia 0.56 


-Glacial  till 
25  feet ' 


f Pierre 
I Niobrara 
-{  and  Benton 
I blue  shales 
11,403  feet 


— Gravel,  3 feet 
— Dakota 

sandstone,  80 
feet,  and  ar- 
tesian water 


Total  dissolved  solids 230.64 

Owing  to  the  low  pressure  and  to 
the  depth  of  boring  required  to  secure 
the  flow  of  water,  it  has  been  found  too  expensive  for  individuals 
to  sink  artesian  wells  in  the  Devils  lake  region.  For  this  and 
other  reasons  the  discussion  of  artesian  wells  will  not  be  taken 
up  in  this  paper. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


231 


USE  OF  WELL  WATER  IN  IRRIGATION 

The  water  found  in  the  till  on  top  of  the  gray  shale  of  the 
Pierre,  and  reached  by  shallow  wells  ranging  usually  from  thirty 
to  seventy  feet  in  depth,  is  of  great  importance,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  other  water  supplies,  but  because  of  its 
great  abundance  and  the  possibility  of  its  use  for  irrigation  as 
well  as  for  household  purposes.  A study  of  the  surrounding 
topographic  and  geologic  conditions  and  an  examination  of 
about  100  wells  in  this  district  indicates  that  the  quantity  of  water 
thus  stored  is  vast,  and  that  it  will  be  amply  sufficient 
to  meet  all  the  demands  that  can  be  made  upon  it  until  the  popu- 
lation has  increased  several  fold  over  that  of  the  present.  The 
flow  of  water  in  these  wells  is  very  slow,  because  of  the  com- 
pact nature  of  the  strata  through  which  the  water  must  pass,  and 
the  daily  supply  of  the  wells  when  pumped  to  their  limit  may 
seem  small  compared  with  the  rapid  flow  of  artesian  wells  and  of 
large  springs ; but  the  important  point  is  as  to  the  capacity  of  the 
underground  reservoir. 

If,  as  has  been  said,  the  reservoir  is  capable  of  supplying  a 
great  amount  of  water,  the  question  naturally  arises  as  to 
whether  the  shallow  wells  of  this  region  can  be  used  for  irriga- 
tion. Those  unfamiliar  with  the  value  of  irrigation  farming  are 
sometimes  inclined  to  regard  with  suspicion  statements  as  to  the 
productive  possibilities  of  any  region  where  irrigation  is  practiced 
or  where  it  might  profitably  be  used,  but  those  who  have  had 
experience  or  who  have  made  a careful  study  of  the  subject  are 
quick  to  recognize  the  advantages. 

The  value  of  irrigation  is  not  confined  to  arid  or  barren 
regions.  Indeed,  its  greatest  benefits  can  be  derived  only  where 
the  soil  is  naturally  productive  and  the  climate  suited  to  the  growth 
of  the  special  crops  to  be  cultivated.  In  this  country  and  in  other 
countries  irrigation  is  frequently  carried  on  in  a small  way  with 
the  largest  profit  in  sections  where  the  total  rainfall  is  abundant, 
as  by  means  of  artificial  applications  the  moisture  can  be  furnished 
at  times  when  it  is  most  needed  by  the  crops  and  to  those  por- 
tions of  the  land  most  needing  it,  thus  advantageously  supplement- 
ing nature’s  method. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  topography  of  this  district 
shows  it  to  be  a beautifully  rolling  prairie,  remarkably  well 
adapted  to  agricultural  pursuits.  The  soil  and  subsoil  are  rich 


232 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


and  enduring.  Both  are  derived  from  Cretaceous  deposits  mixed  ; 
with  fine  rock  refuse  of  Archean  and  Silurian  formations,  and  all 
mingled  with  a considerable  proportion  of  vegetable  mold.  The 
soil  thus  comprises  a good  body  clay,  with  a sufficient  amount  of 
fine  sandy  material  to  make  it  reasonably  porous,  and  with  lime 
and  other  ingredients  to  keep  it  “warm  and  sweet,”  while  the 
carbonaceous  matter  renders  a valuable  aid  in  the  plant  food 
supply.  The  fertility  of  this  soil  is  well  proven  by  the  enormous 
crops  harvested  in  seasons  of  abundant  rainfall.  While  in  no 
respect  an  arid  district,  there  is  frequently  a portion  of  the  grow- 
ing season  during  which  but  little  rain  falls,  and  then  the  appli- 
cation, once  or  twice,  of  a very  small  amount  of  water  to  the 
land  would  undoubtedly  increase  the  matured  crop  from  20  to  50 
per  cent,  an  increase  which  would  mean  to  the  farmer  the  dif-  * 
ference  between  a profitable  season  and  one  of  little  or  no  gain. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  with  the  intention  of  urging  the  farmer  to 
rely  upon  irrigation,  but  that  he  may  be  led  to  supplement  the 
rainfall  at  just  those  periods  of  greatest  need  and  thereby  save 
a large  per  cent  of  the  natural  yield,  that  attention  is  here  called 
to  the  possible  use  of  shallow  wells. 

In  considering  the  use  of  both  artesian  and  shallow  well 
- water,  the  question  is  frequently  raised  as  to  the  effect  of  the 
dissolved  mineral  matter  upon  vegetation,  and  reference  is  some- 
times made  to  the  vegetation  occurring  about  alkali  spots  as  il- 
lustrating the  possible  result  of  the  use  of  such  mineralized  waters. 
The  water  of  wells  is  never  so  strongly  alkaline  as  is  the  water 
in  these  places,  and  the  amount  of  such  deposits  as  would  be 
left  by  the  occasional  and  reasonable  use  in  irrigation,  even  of 
strongly  impregnated  artesian  water,  could  not  cause  an  appreciable 
accumulation  of  alkalies  in  the  soil.  The  alkali  spots  which  are 
occasionally  seen  on  the  prairies  and  alkali  waters  are  probably 
in  a measure  due  to  the  same  cause.  For  years  before  the  settle- 
ment of  the  west  prairie  fires  destroyed  the  summer’s  growth  of 
grass,  leaving  upon  the  surface  <the  ash  or  mineral  constituents 
of  the  vegetation,  consisting  largely  of  potassium  and  sodium  car- 
bonates. These  compounds,  being  soluble  in  water,  were  dissolved 
by  the  rain  and  melting  snow  and  carried  to  lower  places.  Dur- 
ing the  warm  summer  much  of  the  water  evaporated,  and  an 
accumulation  of  its  various  soluble  salts,  especially  alkaline  car- 
bonates, was  left.  Thus  in  low  places  this  alkaline  matter  has  been 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


233 


accumulating  for  years,  and  in  this  condensed  form  proves  injurious 
to  the  vegetation. 

The  small  amount  of  alkalies  in  the  well  waters  of  these  prai- 
ries is  probably  also  due  in  a large  measure  to'  the  ash  of  burned 
prairie  grass,  and  represents  that  proportion  which  was  carried 
downward  through  the  soil  by  imbibition.  Water  obtained  at 
or  near  the  top  of  the  Pierre  formation  is  especially  liable  to  be 
alkaline,  owing  probably  to  the  accumulation  in  this  compact 
clay  formation  of  salts  thus  carried  downward.  As  prairie  fires 
cease  and  the  present  pernicious  practice  of  burning  straw  is 
abandoned,  the  alkali  spots  and  the  alkali  water  will  doubtless  be- 
come improved. 

The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  partial  analyses  of 
water  obtained  during  the  field  work,  the  samples  being  con- 
sidered as  typical  of  the  waters  of  the  region.  The  first  table 
shows,  in  grains  per  gallon,  the  chlorine  estimated  as  equivalent 
to  sodium  chloride,  the  hardness  equivalent  to  carbonates  and 
sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  the  alkaline  ingredients  includ- 
ing some  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia.  In  the  second  table 
there  is  presented  more  complete  data  as  to  the  location  of  the 
wells,  the  depth  of  strata  penetrated,  the  quantity  of  water  obtained, 
and  the  amounts  of  salts,  alkalies  and  soluble  sulphates,  thest  being 
given  in  relative  terms,  having  been  determined  from  field  ttsts. 

From  these  analyses  it  is.  evident  that  the  waters  do  not  con- 
tain alkalies  or  mineral  salts  in  such  quantities  that  injury  to  the 
soil  would  be  caused  by  their  use  in  irrigation. 


234 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


PARTIAL  ANALYSES  OF  WELL  AND  OTHER  WATER  IN  THE  DEVILS 

LAKE  REGION 

Grains  Per  Gallon 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

Total 

Name  and  Number 

Chloride 

Hardness 

‘ Alkalies 

Solids 

1 

Tollef  Tollefson 

. . 67.07 

560.00 

10.60 

993.20 

2 

Devils  Lake  water  

. . 79.60 

227.50 

19.08 

635.90 

3 

Sheyenne  river  

..  1.65 

15.00 

29.68 

58.50 

4 

Frank  Williams  

. . 17.63 

22.50 

6.36 

449.70 

5 

Baker’s  well,  (near  Oberon)  . . 

..  23.90 

130.00 

10.60 

466.60 

6 

Frank  Wood  

..  3.63 

21.00 

12.72 

40.30 

7 

Walter  Falgeson  

..  4.12 

7.50  . 

25.44 

81.20 

8 

Wilcox,  north  of  Leeds  

..  0.49 

18.00 

4.24 

9 

Mauvaise  coulee  

1.81 

17.50 

62.30 

10 

Linberberg  

..  1.32 

19.00 

6.36 

37.90 

11 

Andrew  Grasser  (over  500  ft.  deep)  111.90 

13.00 

12.72 

161.70 

12 

Jacobson  

..  14.67 

79.00 

23.32 

231.00 

13 

Phillip  Cocking  

..  0.49 

17.00 

8.48 

87.80 

14 

L.  A.  Johnson  

..  5.44 

23.00 

29.68 

98.90 

15 

C.  E.  Engre 

..  4.61 

54.50 

19.08 

149.60 

16 

Goldberg  

..  4.12 

44.00 

4.24 

78.30 

17 

Maristeau  

..  9.39 

42.00 

6.36 

117.00 

18 

Wimbledon  artesian*  

..  80.42 

105.00 

6.36 

257.80 

19 

Monstad 

..  6.10 

34.30 

8.48 

89.40 

20 

Conway*  

..  219.18 

15.00 

31.80 

326.90 

(1)  Estimated  as  equivalent  to  sodium  chloride. 

(2)  Equivalent  to  carbonates  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

(3)  All  ingredients  including  some  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  estimated  equiva- 
lent to  carbonate  of  sodium. 

*Not  in  this  region. 


TABLE  OF  FIELD  DATA  ON  WELLS  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  BASIN 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


235 


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.236 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


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238 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


The  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation  of  all  kinds  on  ground 
bordering  coulees,  lakes  and  ponds,  bears  testimony  to  the  bene- 
fits which  would  be  derived  from  the  artificial  application  of  well 
water.  These  effects  are  brought  out  by  the  following  statements 
concerning  the  vegetation  of  this  region  compiled  from  a report 
made  by  Prof.  M.  A.  Brannon,  of  the  department  of  botany  in 
the  State  University  of  North  Dakota,  who  accompanied  the  writer 
in  his  field  work. 

The  Devils  lake  basin  contains  the  largest  constant  water 
supply  of  any  corresponding  area  in  North  Dakota.  This  condi- 
tion and  the  excellent  soil  of  the  region  afford  reasons  for  infer- 
ring that  this  portion  of  the  state  might  have  more  timber  than 
any  other  area  of  corresponding  extent.  Observation,  however, 
does  not  show  this  to  be  the  case  for,  on  the  contrary,  the  flora 
of  this  basin  is  notably  lacking  in  woody  plants.  It  is  a treeless 
region,  excepting  for  the  narrow  and  incomplete  timber  border 
of  Devils  lake  and  Pleasant  lake,  isolated  clumps  of  willows 
along  coulee  banks  and  a few  timber  claims.  If  conditions  were 
over  otherwise  there  is  no  record  of  them.  The  prairie  fires 
which  swept  these  plains  and  swales  for  generations,  and  the 
small  annual  rainfall  are  believed  to  have  prevented  the  distri- 
bution and  development  of  trees.  However,  now  that  the  fires 
are  quite  closely  controlled,  there"  is  reason  to  expect  the  native 
groves  to  extend  over  larger  territory  and  produce  trees  of  con- 
siderable size.  The  timber  claims  which  have  been  cared  for 
bear  testimony  to  the  fact  that  trees  can  be  grown  successfully 
in  this  basin. 

The  native  box  elder  ( Negundo  aceroides) , elm  ( Ulmus  race- 
mosa),  and  white  ash  ( Fraxinus  americana)  all  make  rapid 
growth  when  planted  on  timber  claims  that  are  properly  culti- 
vated and  supplied  with  water  from  surface  wells  and  coulees. 
Several  species  of  poplar  and  willow  are  well  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions found  in  most  North  Dakota  tree  claims.  The  principal 
native  trees  about  Devils  lake  and  Pleasant  lake  are  burr  oak 
( Quercus  macrocarpa) , rock  elm  ( Ulmus  racemosa),  white  ash 
( Fraxinus  americana ),  hackberry  ( Celtis  occidentalis) , chokeberry 
(Prunus  virginiana) , and  wild  red  cherry  ( Prunns  pennsylvanica) . 
There  are  numerous  shrubs  in  addition  to  these,  but  none  of 
them  afford  fuel  or  shelter.  The  largest  trees  are  nearly  two 
and  one-half  to  three  feet  in  diameter  and  from  sixty  to  eighty 
feet  tall.  The  water  of  Devils  lake  is  slightly  saline,  but  the 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


‘239 


"border  of  the  largest  growth  of  trees  extends  almost  to  the  shore 
line.  From  this  fact  one  is  led  to  believe  that  the  water  received 
through  the  subsoil  is  not  injurious  to  the  trees.  There  is  ample 
•evidence  that  excellent  timber  can  be  grown  in  this  region  if 
proper  irrigation  methods  are  employed.  The  native  hardy  varie- 
ties of  trees  need  to  be  supplied  with  water  only  for  a few  seas- 
sons ; later  the  young  trees  care  for  themselves.  The  hot  winds 
which  are  so  fatal  to  groves  farther  south,  do  not,  as  a rule,  affect 
foliage  in  this  state. 

The  presence  of  many  valuable  grasses  in  this  basin  indi- 
cates the  adaptability  of  the  soil  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  grain  producing  portions  of  the  state  west  of  the 
Red  river  valley.  Wheat  is  the  principal  grain  grown,  and 
yields  from  twelve  to  forty-five  bushels  per  acre  depending  on 
the  season.  No  season  is  too  wet  for  most  of  this  rolling  region, 
but  many  of  them  are  too  dry  for  large  crops,  which  doubtless 
could  be  produced  almost  every  year  if  a feasible  method  of 
irrigation  were  adopted.  So  far  as  observation  of  one  year’s 
conditions  enable  one  to  report,  the  effects  of  surface  water  are 
altogether  favorable  to  the  development  of  abundant  straw  and 
well  filled  heads.  Barley,  oats  and  rye  are  all  grown  in  abun- 
dance. 

The  effect  of  surface  water  on  the  grain  raised  in  the  Devils 
lake  basin  is  such  that  one  is  led  to  believe  that  irrigation 
would  well  repay  the  expense  of  constructing  an  economical 
system. 

As  elsewhere  indicated,  the  land  is  admirably  adapted  to 
easy  and  effective  watering  by  means  of  surface  wells,  coulees 
and  shallow  lakes.  The  cultivated  vegetation  which  gave  most 
ample  testimony  to  the  value  of  sufficient  water  supplies  were 
vegetables  and  succulent  garden  plants,  all  of  which  are  grown 
successfully  in  this  region.  In  some  truck  patches  which  were 
supplied  with  irrigation  ditches  the  water  was  obtained  from 
creeks  or  surface  wells,  and  in  all  cases  the  plants  were  growing 
in  a luxuriant  fashion. 

The  same  beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  surface  water 
were  observed  in  the  cultivation  of  fruits,  such  as  strawberries, 
blackberries,  huckleberries,  gooseberries,  currants,  plums  and 
cherries,  satisfactory  yields  being  secured  by  artificial  applica- 
tion of  water  during  periods  of  drought.  From  the  standpoint 
of  the  agriculturist,  gardener  and  fruit  grower,  there  is  ample 
testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  water  from  surface  wells,  ponds, 


240 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


and  artificial  reservoirs  is  beneficial  to  vegetation.  The  only  prob- 
lem is  how  to  secure  this  supply  in  critical  periods  of  partial 
drought,  which  are  liable  to  affect  this  region  occasionally.  With 
an  economical  and  efficient  system  which  could  use  this  surface 
supply  in  such  occasionally  dry  seasons,  there  could  be  guaran- 
teed a degree  of  certainty  in  agricultural  pursuits  that  would  lead 
to  the  extensive  development  of  a region  exceedingly  rich  in  soil 
and  agricultural  possibilities. 

No  estimate  of  the  limit  of  the  capacity  of  the  surface  wells 
in  this  part  of  the  state  can  be  given,  since  in  but  a few  in- 
stances has  there  been  any  attempt  to  measure  the  flow  per  day 
or  hour.  In  some  cases  data  obtained  when  wells  were  dug  or- 
cleaned  show  a very  rapid  supply,  reaching  in  one  or  more  in- 
stances 40,000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours ; such  a supply  is,  how- 
ever, certainly  unusual.  Ordinarily,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the 
inflow  is  rather  slow  owing  to  the  compact  nature  of  the  contain- 
ing material,  and  for  this  reason  it  might  be  necessary  to  tap  the 
supply  basin  by  several  wells  before  a sufficient  quantity  of  water 
could  be  stored  to  irrigate  any  considerable  number  of  acres.  On. 
account  of  the  short  distance  necessary  to  dig  for  water  in  most 
cases  it  would  not  be  very  expensive  to  put  down  several  wells. 
Generally  the  farmer  could,  during  seasons  of  little  work,  dig  these 
wells  himself,  and  they  could  all  be  connected  by  pipes  or  other- 
wise arranged  to  supply  a common  reservoir. 

The  water  could  be  pumped  by  windmills  or  other  convenient 
power.  In  North  Dakota,  where  the  days  on  which  there  is  suf- 
ficient breeze  to  run  a wind  wheel  are  so  numerous,  this  power 
should  certainly  be  much  more  generally  used  than  it  now  is,  for- 
pumping  water  and  for  other  purposes,  such  as  grinding  feed, 
sawing  wood,  and  operating  various  farming  mills.  In  localities 
where  all  the  conditions  have  been  thoroughly  studied  and  care- 
ful use  made  of  windmill  pumps,  the  general  opinion  seems  to  be 
that  they  can  be  successfully  employed  in  irrigation.  This  subject 
has  been  discussed  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Wilson,  in  paper  No.  1 of  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  water  supply  papers. 

The  prairie  is  gently  rolling  in  this  portion  of  North  Dakota, 
and  probably  a considerable  proportion  of  the  land  of  the  dis- 
trict described  in  this  report  could  be  watered  at  times  when  the 
rainfall  was  rather  deficient  at  cdmpartively  small  expense. 
For  this  purpose  the  high  points  should  be  selected  for  reservoir- 
sites. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


241 


A suitable  reservoir  can  be  constructed  easily  by  throwing  up 
an  earth  embankment,  which  should  be  very  thick  and  well  lined 
with  clay,  asphaltum  or  cement.  Each  reservoir  should  be  pro- 
vided with  one  or  more  outlets  which  can  be  opened  and  cleaned 
readily,  and  should  usually  be  supplied  with  water  from  several 
wells,  the  number  depending  upon  the  amount  of  water  available 
from  each  and  the  acreage  to  be  watered. 

The  best  method  of  applying  the  water  to  the  land  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  degree  of  uniformity  of  the  sur- 
face, the  quantity  of  water  available  and  the  elevation  of  the  reser- 
voir, and  each  farmer  must  learn  by  actul  experience  what  method 
is  best  adapted  to  his  land  and  just  how  to  operate  his  system. 
It  may  be  said,  in  view  of  the  characteristics  of  the  land  of  this 
region,  and  especially  on  account  of  the  elevation  available  for  the 
reservoirs,  that  much  less  water  will  be  required  and  less  labor  and 
skill  in  its  application  than  in  many  nearly  level  districts  where 
artificial  and  other  modes  of  irrigation  are  practiced. 

For  much  of  this  rolling  land  a method  sometimes  known  as 
the  catchwork  system  is  probably  most  easily  applicable.  This 
consists  in  providing  a number  of  distributing  ditches  which  fol- 
low quite  closely  the  contour  of  the  ground  having  a very  slight 
fall.  These  ditches  are  in  a general  way  parallel  to  each  other  and 
at  distances  from  three  to  four  rods  to  ten  rods  or  more,  depending 
upon  the  slope  of  the  surface.  These  nearly  horizontal  ditches  are 
marked  in  figure  19,  ABC.  They  are  connected  with  other  ditches 


Fig.  19.  Figure  illustrating  method  of  applying  water  on  irregular  ground. 


”242 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


marked  L,  which  follow  down  the  slope  at  as  steep  a grade  as 
can  be  maintained  without  washing  the  soil.  The  lower  side  of 
each  of  the  ditches  A B C is  made  so  nearly  level  that  by  placingf 
a temporary  dam  or  obstruction  of  earth  at  some  point,  for  example 
in  the  ditch  A,  the  water  will  be  forced  to  overflow  and  spread  uni- 
formly down  the  slope,  being  caught  in  turn  by  the  next  ditch,  B, 
below.  The  flow  in  this  lower  ditch  can  be  increased  by  the 
quantity  turned  down  the  side  hill  ditches,  L,  and  these  in  turn 
overflowing  spread  over  the  slope  to  the  next  intercepting  ditch, 
C,  below. 

Where  the  ground  is  so  irregular  that  the  water  will  not 
spread  evenly  over  the  strip  of  land  below  the  ditch  A,  it  is  often 
desirable  to  run  shallow  furrows  (f)  diagonally  down  the  hill 
slope,  stopping  these  before  they  reach  the  lower  ditch,  B.  By  mak- 
ing these  at  the  proper  grade,  and  by  regulating  the  flow  by  means 
of  small  obstructions  made  with  a shovelful  of  earth,  it  is  possible 
to  give  the  field  a uniform  soaking.  « 

Because  of  the  remarkable  fertlity  of  the  soil  of  this  district; 
and  the  fact  that  this  well  system  is  to  be  used  only  as  a supple- 
ment for  a short  period  in  the  year  and  not  at  all  in  some  years, 
no  one  should  be  led  to  underestimate  the  value  that  would  be 
derived  from  such  a system  properly  managed.  The  fact  that 
irrigation  is  not  a necessity  makes  it  seem  to  many  not  worth 
the  trouble  unless  from  eighty  to  160  acres  of  land  can  be  watered 
from  the  start.  This  idea  is  certainly  wrong.  Irrigation  is  in 


WINDMILLS  ANO  CIRCULAR  RESERVOIR 


Fig.  20.  Windmills  and  irrigation  on  the  plains. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


243 


nearly  all  cases  a great  and  lasting  aid  only  in  those  sections 
where  work  is  begun  on  a small  scale  and  where  the  most  careful 
efforts  for  improvement  are  made.  'Those  who  attempt  to  apply 
water  artificially  in  this  section  should  be  content  to  begin  with  from 
five  to  twenty  acres,  and  not  endeavor  to  water  large  tracts  until 
they  have  carefully  determined  the  best  way  to  construct  the  plants 
and  to  use  the  water. 

SANITARY  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  WATER 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  for  consideration  in  con- 
nection with  the  water  used  by  any  community  is  its  sanitary 
condition. 

* Comparatively  few  people  have  a proper  conception  of  the 
means  of  providing  a pure  water  supply  or  of  the  way  to  retain 
its  purity;  nor  do  many  thoroughly  realize  what  great  danger  lies 
in  the  use  of  impure  water.  It  is  with  the  hope  of  directing  atten- 
tion to  the  great  desirability  of  improvement  in  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  wells  used  for  domestic  purposes  that  the  few  words 
following  are  added. 

In  this  district  almost  the  entire  supply  of  water  for  domestic 
use  is  derived  from  open  wells,  about  three  or  four  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  usually  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet  deep.  The  water  is 
generally  found  in  a sand  and  gravel  stratum,  confined  by  impervious 
beds  of  clay,  the  lower  of  which  usually  forms  the  bed  of  the  com- 
mon subterranean  level  of  the  region.  A water  supply  derived  from 
a source  thus  protected  by  nature  from  surface  contamination  is 
nevertheless  liable  to  become  dangerous  to  health  unless  more 
than  common  care  is  exercised  in  the  location  and  construction 
of  the  well.  A large  percentage  of  the  wells  visited  by  the  writer 
were  found  to  be  improperly  located.  For  convenience  in  supplying 
water  for  cattle  many  are  in  stables  or  in  or  near  the  edge  of  stock 
yards,  others  are  on  low  ground  or  on  some  hillside  where  the  drain- 
age from  above  tends  to  soak  into  the  well.  Under  such  conditions 
it  is  the  greatest  wonder  that  cases  of  fever  and  other  diseases  are 
not  of  more  frequent  occurrence. 

In  the  country  there  is  no  necessity  for  placing  a well  in  such 
a position  that  there  will  be  danger  from  surface  contamination. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  space  and  water  is  easily  obtained  almost 
anywhere. 

*W.  J.  McGee,  The  Portable  Waters  of  Eastern  United  States;  Fourteenth  Annual 
Report.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II. 


244 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


Special  precaution  should  be  used  to  make  tight  the  top  and 
sides  of  the  well,  so  that  the  water  will  filter  through  as  great  a 
thickness  of  material  as  possible  before  finding  its  way  into  the  welh 
This  condition  can  be  secured  by  laying  up  a brick  or  stone  wall 
in  hydraulic  cement  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  well  to  about  a 
foot  above  the  surface.  Care  should  be  taken  that  any  open  space 
between  the  sides  of  the  well  and  the  brick  wall  is  filled  at  the  bot- 
tom with  cement  and  sand  or  clay,  and  that  it  is  carefully  covered 
at  the  top  with  heavy  boards  and  otherwise  made  tight.  Apparent 
cleanliness  and  purity  should -not  be  assumed  to  guarantee  absolute 
freedom  from  contamination. 

The  location  and  surroundings  of  a well  must  always  be  looked 
after.  Very  frequently  disease  germs  lurk  unsuspected  in  what 
is  seemingly  to  the  eye  the  clearest  and  purest  water.  The  writer 
regrets  that  he  cannot  here  give  a large  number  of  analyses  to 
show  the  organic  matter  in  water  from  wells  of  different  locations, 
but  it  was  almost  impossible,  owing  to  the  conditions  under  which 
the  work  was  carried  on,  to  make  the  organic  determinations,  even- 
in  those  wellS  which  were  given  an  approximate  mineral  analysis,, 
since  search  for  organic  matter  must  be  made  very  promptly  after 
the  collection  of  the  samples,  which  was  impossible  in  these  cases. 
However,  the  mineral  analyses  were  made  and  careful  observations 
were  taken  regarding  the  location,  elevation  and  various  surround- 
ing conditions,  and  the  effects  of  these  conditions  may  be  seen  in 
a way  by  reference  to  the  following  table  of  analyses.  An  examina- 
tion of  these  analyses  and  of  the  record  of  the  field  tests  shows- 
that  in  a very  large  proportion  of  cases  the  water  obtained  from 
wells  located  on  low  lands  is  poorer  than  that  from  those  on  high 
lands.  In  most  cases  where  there  had  been  sickness,  caused  pos- 
sibly by  the  water,  the  wells  used  were  situated  in  low  places  or  near 
stables  or  cesspools. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


245 


Table  showing-  salts  and  mineral  matter  in  water  of  wells  at 
different  elevations : 


Grains  Per  Gallon 

Name 

(l) 

Chlorine 

(2) 

Hardness 

(3) 

Carbonates 

Total 

Solids 

Location 

1 Wilcox 

0.49 

18. 

4.24 

....  Good,  high 

2 Lindeberger . . . . 

3 Cocking 

1.32 

19. 

6.36 

37.9 

Good, very  high 

0.49 

17. 

8.48 

87.8 

Good, very  high 

4 Goldberg 

4.12 

44. 

4.24 

78.3 

High 

5 Johnson 

5.44 

23. 

29.68 

98.9 

Too  near  stock 
yards,  high 

6 Wood  

3.(53 

21. 

12.72 

40.3 

Medium 

7 Falgeson. 

4.12 

7.5 

25.44 

81.2 

8 Enger 

4 61 

54.5 

19.08 

149.6 

Medium 

9 Maristeau . 

9.39 

42. 

6.36 

117. 

...  In  barn,  low 

10  Jacobson 

14.67 

79. 

23.32 

231.  ' 

Near  barn,  low 

(1)  Estimated  as  equivalent  to  sodium  chloride. 

(2)  Equivalent  to  carbonates  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

(3)  Lime,  magnesia  and  alkalias  estimated  as  equivalent  to  sodium  carbonate.  With  the 
true  alkalias  was  estimated  all,  or  a part  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

The  number  of  wells  located  near  barnyards  and  supplying 
water  for  household  purposes  was  astonishing.  Were  it  not  for 
the  remarkably  healthful  climate  and  for  the  out-of-door  occupa- 
tion and  good  resisting  power  of  those  habitually  using  such 
water  there  would  be  a larger  amount  of  sickness.  Water  obtained 
from  wells  in  low  places  and  where  the  water  rests  in  blue  clay 
was  nearly  always  found  to  be  stronger  in  alkalies,  salts  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  soluble  sulphides  and  of  inferior  quality 
to  that  from  wells  located  on  higher  sand  or  gravel  ridges.  Very 
few  of  the  wells  of  this  district  are  walled  up  with  brick  or  stone. 
Wooden  planks  are  generally  used,  simply  to  keep  the  well  from 
caving  in.  Some  wells  are  not  even  planked  up.  The  top  is  usually 
very  poorly  covered  and  many  are  kept  quite  open. 

It  must  not  be  understood  from  the  above  statements  that  the 
water  of  this  region  is  naturally  dangerous,  for  this  is  not  the  case. 
There  is,  however,  great  room  for  improvement  in  sanitary  con- 
ditions within  the  control  of*  man.  The  following  points  are  sug- 
gested as  possible  aids  in  bringing  about  an  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  water  used  for  household  purposes  in  this  region : 

Locate  the  well  on  high  land,  and  whenever  possible  let  it  be 
in  a sand  ridge,  or  at  least  in  a location  which  there  is  reason  to 
believe  is  underlain  with  such  material.  This  will  not  be  very 
difficult  to  accomplish  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  wells  in  this 
district.  Investigation  goes  to  show  beyond  a doubt  that  in  most 
cases  the  best  water  is  obtained  when  the  well  is  put  through  much 


246 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


sand  and  gravel,  at  least  for  a'  portion  of  its  depth.  This  fact 
of  course,  is  generally  recognized.  Sand  and  gravel  act  as  a filter- 
ing bed,  and  are  often  used  for  the  improvement  of  otherwise 
impure  supplies.  Many  cities  use  sand  filtering  beds  with  remark- 
ably good  results.  In  the  east  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  tested 
systems  of  this  kind  is  the  comparatively  simple  sand  bed  arrange- 
ment of  the  city  of  Lawrence,  Mass.,  by  which  the  water  is  purified 
for  domestic  use.  In  North  Dakota  a similar  system  is  used  at 
Grand  Forks  with  gratifying  results.  Usually  the  organic  impuri- 
ties in  the  water  after  filtration  amount  to  but  a small  fraction  of 
that  found  in  the  unfiltered  water.  Wherever  water  is  found  which 
passes  through  layers  of  sand  and  gravel,  as  is  commonly  the  case 
in  this  part  of  the  state,  it  will  have  been  subjected  to  a natural 
filtration  which,  as  the  analyses  given  in  this  report  show,  results 
in  a marked  improvement  in  its  quality* 

Wells  should  be  located  on  high  land  to  prevent  contamination 
from  the  slow  percolation  of  impure  surface  water;  wells  in  low 
places  naturally  receive  the  sewage  and  general  drainage  from 
the  higher  portions  of  land ; but  high  and  rolling  land  favors  a 
rapid  run-off  of  surface  water,  and  so  usually  prevents  the  intro- 
duction of  surface  impurities. 

For  obvious  reasons  it  is  imperative  that  wells  to  supply  drink- 
ing water  should  not  be  stopped  at  too  shallow  a depth.  Many 
wells  may  be  found  which  are  little  more  than  mere  basins  dug 
a few  feet  in  the  soil  and  subsoil.  The  water  thus  obtained  is  all 
from  the  immediate  surface  and  is  very  liable  to  contamination. 
Wells  dug  for  domestic  use  should  be  walled  up  with  brick  or 
stone  and  not  with  wood,  since  the  latter  does  not  keep  out  surface 
water  but  furnishes  favorable  conditions  for  the  accumulation  and 
growth  of  organic  matter;  the  wood  soon  begins  to  decay,  thus 
supplying  impurity,  while  the  cracks  and  rotten  places  in  the  wood 
allow  access  to  small  animals. 

Based  upon  the  principles  mentioned,  there  are  many  ways  of 
constructing  wells  which  will  furnish  pure  water  and  be  entirely 
satisfactory. 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


247 


The  accompanying  illustration,  figure  21,  is  given  as  a sug- 
gestion of  one  safe  method  of  construction.  This  will  be  found 
applicable  in  many  places  in  this  region,  but  will  need  to  be  modi- 


Cement . 


\T  culTe  * 


S An  AM-'.’V; 


find/ 


J/  jb  l CfytsL.  ^OT  CL.  UJQ.ll  ^0r 


Fig.  21.  Plan  for  a well  for  domestic  use. 


248 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


fied  oftentimes  to  meet  the  local  conditions.  This  plan  is  intended 
only  for  localities  where  the  water  will  rise  by  its  own  pressure 
at  the  lowest  stages  to  a point  above  the  top  of  the  inflow  pipes 
marked  A,  in  figure  21.  Wherever  the  water  does  not  rise  of  its 
own  pressure  so  as  to  overflow  th6se  inlet  pipes  this  design  for 
a well  would  not  be  available,  as  the  pump  could  only  lift  the  water 
out  of  the  well  when  it  rises  above  the  intake  pipe  to  the  pump. 
The  well  is  dug  to  within  a few  feet  of  the  sand  which  contains 
the  water  and  which  is  capped  by  compact  clay  or  shale.  Through 
this  clay  or  shale  the  iron  tubes,  A,  are  driven,  or,  if  the  shale  or 
clay  is  too  hard  the  tubes  are  placed  in  holes  drilled  through.  All 
of  these  tubes,  six  or  eight  in  number,  pass  into  the  water-bearing 
sand,  as  seen  by  the  central  tube.  Each  tube  is  provided  with  an 
ordinary  pointed  cap  for  the  lower  end  and  is  perforated  along  the 
sides  for  some  distance.  The  bottom  of  the  well  is  then  cemented 
very  carefully  around  the  pipes,  and  the  entire  bottom,  D,  is  covered 
with  a thickness  of  about  a foot  with  a fine  concrete  made  of  Port- 
land or  other  good  hydraulic  cement.  Upon  this  the  brick  wall 
is  laid  in  hydraulic  cement  mortar  to  about  one  foot  above  the  sur  - 
face, and  is  provided  with  a tight  fitting  cover.  The  tube,  C,  is 
placed  in  the  cover  to  allow  a free  circulation  of  air.  It  should 
be  provided  with  a fine  screen  on  top  or  a perforated  cap  and 
sides.  The  tube,  B,  ending  in  a perforated  cap,  is  the  suction 
tube  leading  to  the  pump.  A well  constructed  in  this  manner  is 
a great  improvement  over  the  one  of  common  construction,  since 
it  permits  no  foreign  matter  to  enter  the  well  and  does  not  require 
that  the  water  shall  stand  in  the  blue  clay  or  shale  and  thus  increase 
the  amount  of  alkalies  as  well  as  of  other  mineral  matter.  When- 
ever it  is  desired  to  clean  the  well,  the  tops  of  the  tubes,  A,  can 
be  plugged  up  and  the  water  drawn  out.  When  there  is  doubt 
about  the  water  rising,  at  its  lowest  stage,  to  a sufficient  height 
above  the  inflow  pipes,  A,  to  insure  a good  supply,  some  slight 
modifications  may  be  adopted.  For  example,  the  bottom  of  the  well 
should  be  carried  down  very  near  to  the  water-bearing  stratum. 
When  it  is  evident  that  the  water  will  rise  some  distance  above  the 
bottom  one  large  intake  pipe,  A,  or  several  smaller  ones,  may  be 
put  down  well  into  the  water-bearing  stratum.  The  concrete  can 
then  be  placed  above  these  in  the  way  illustrated  or  the  pump  may 
be  connected  directly  by  means  of  pipe  B to  the  one  or  more  pipes 
sunken  into  the  water-bearing  stratum,  and  then  the  concrete  can 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


249 


be  placed  around  these  pipes.  In  this  case  water  will  be  gotten 
as  long  as  the  supply  keeps  up  in  the  carrying  stratum.  The 
-cylinder  of  the  pump  should  not  be  located  too  far  above  the  water 
•supply. 

When  it  is  not  necessary  to  dig  very  far  for  water,  a better 
plan  still  would  be  to  extend  the  open  well,  curbed  with  brick  laid 
in  cement  mortar,  down  to  a point  say  from  four  to  eight  feet  be- 
low the  water  line,  provided  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  that  thick. 
In  this  way  the  bottom  of  the  well  will  remain  directly  in  the  sand 
or  gravel  carrying  water.  The  bottom  is  not  cemented  in  such  a 
case.  The  pipes  connecting  with  the  pump  are  then  run  directly 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  well.  It  should  terminate  in  a large 
screen  resting  upon  a stone  of  good  size  or  a little  pier  of  brick. 
The  stone  or  pier  and  the  screen  of  the  intake  pipe  should  now  be 
covered  with  gravel.  If  desired,  a little  coarse  charcoal  of  the 
best  kind  may  be  mixed  with  the  gravel.  It  is  well  then  to  cover  the 
charcoal  with  small  gravel  and  finally  with  coarse  sand  This  will 
produce  a very  excellent  filter  bed.  It  is  important  to  have  a good 
screen  at  the  bottom  of  the  pump  pipe.  This  may  be  made  from  a 
large  core  or  bulb  with  openings  on  the  sides  and  bottom  and 
covered  with  rather  fine  antirust  wire  screen.  It  is  desirable  gen- 
erally to  use  a screen  which  confines  its  surface 'to  within  six  or 
eight  inches  of  the  bottom.  This  will  permit  the  withdrawing  of 
nearly  all  the  water  before  the  pump  takes  air.  Such  care  or  ex- 
pense need  not  be  taken  with  wells  for  stock  or  irrigation,  but 
simply  with  those  which  are  employed  for  household  purposes. 

In  wells  used  for  domestic  purposes  it  is  highly  desirable  that 
a large  amount  of  water  be  removed,  for  this  is  an  important  aid 
in  keeping  the  supply  pure  and  preventing  the  accumulation  of 
alkalies  or  other  salts.  In  nearly  all  cases  in  this  region  the  greater 
quantity  of  water  drawn  the  better  its  quality.  Where  windmills 
are  used  and  a large  amount  of  water  is  pumped  out,  the  improve- 
ment is  noticeable.  The  value  derived  from  the  removal  of  a large 
quantity  of  water  is  probably  not  only  due  to  the  prevention  of  the 
accumulation  of  alkalies  and  other  salts,  but  also  the  prevention  of 
certain  chemical  changes  which  soon  take  place  in  the  standing 
water.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  of  these  is  between  the  alkaline 
carbonates  and  sulphides,  mostly  of  iron,  which  in  the  presence  of 
a small  amount  of  organic  matter  probably  combine  so  as  to  form 
traces  of  carbonate  of  iron  and  set  free  a small  amount  of  hydrogen 


250 


WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  DEVILS  LAKE  REGION 


sulphide,  which  gives  the  offensive  odor  to  many  wells  in  which 
water  is  allowed  to  stand,  especially  if  it  is  confined  in  shale.  When 
large  quantities  of  water  are  used,  so  that  the  supply  is  constantly 
being  changed,  there  is  not  much  opportunity  for  such  chemical 
decomposition. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  proper  construction  of  the  wells 
and  the  removal  of  large  quantities  of  water  will  greatly  improve 
the  quality  of  the  supply.  The  containing  shales  and  clays  will 
doubtless  be  slowly  relieved,  by  this  process  of  washing,  of  much 
of  their  impurities.  More  care  should  certainly  be  given  to  the 
sanitary  conditions  of  drinking  water  in  this  region.  Few  sub- 
jects need  more  attention  or  are  more  worthy  of  thought  than  this 
one  of  domestic  water  supply.  Upon  it  to  a great  extent  depends  the 
health,  comfort  and  prosperity  of  the  whole  community. 


